Mapping Muslim Kingdoms NYPL, Map Division

The 18th century saw the Age of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a cultural-philosophic orientation, a political culture, and a way of life for the educated élites of Europe (and the North American colonies). Not surprisingly, it displayed some variations from country to country, and underwent some changes over time. Briefly and schematically, thinkers of the Enlightenment—called philosophes in France—advocated the primacy of reason and empirical experience (or observation) in accounting for the phenomena of Nature and the actions of Man. Thus they propagandized scientific knowledge of the physical, animal, and vegetal realms, as well as tolerance of man's manifold ways of modeling social behavior. However, as reason was common to all human creatures it alone should determine social and political organization, to the exclusion of traditions and practices rooted in religious belief.

	Diplomatic Reception Room of the Kremlin NYPL, Slavic and Baltic Division

Promoting individual happiness and material progress should be the aim of a good and just government. In the later 18th century, more particularly in France, radical materialist and democratic conclusions were drawn from these ideas. They prepared the ground for revolutionary social and political demands. In the German-speaking world, the Enlightenment manifested an emotional and religious tinge—called Aufklärung—that advocated individual spiritual cultivation to achieve an ultimate, synergistic merging with God.

During the course of the 17th century, Sweden became a prosperous, outward-looking power—in the late 1630s it even established a colony called "New Sweden" in what is today the state of Delaware. Military victories over other Baltic Sea states expanded territories under Swedish influence.

	The Dutch Depict Russia's Northern Rivals NYPL, Slavic and Baltic Division, Bates Pantuhoff Collection

At the beginning of the 18th century, this expansionism prompted alliances among Sweden's neighbors—including Russia. The alliance proved unable to halt Charles XII (r. 1697–1718), who scored sweeping military victories over the Danes and the Russians. Ultimately, Sweden overextended itself in central Europe, allowing Russia under Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725) to regroup and defeat Charles's army deep inside Ukraine. Sweden subsequently suffered defeat after defeat at the hands of Peter, and never regained its former status militarily or politically.